Porcine Respiratory Disease Complex and Biofilms

Respiratory disease in pigs is common in modern pork production worldwide and is often referred as porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC). PRDC is polymicrobial in nature, and results from infection with various combinations of primary and secondary respiratory pathogens. As a true multifactorial disease; environmental conditions, population size, management strategies and pig-specific factors such as age and genetics play critical roles in the outcome of PRDC. Pathogens involved in respiratory disease in pigs vary significantly among farms, production sites, regions and countries, difficulting the treatment and control of the PRDC. The interaction that occurs on the cellular and molecular levels during concurrent infection of pigs with two or more respiratory pathogens is multi-faceted and complex. Rates of morbidity related to PRDC range from 30% to 70%, and mortality rates vary between 4 and 6 percent, which could be even higher in affected farms

 

 
There are a variety of viral and bacterial pathogens commonly associated with PRDC. The main bacteria associated to PRDC includes:Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Streptococcus suis , Pasteurella multocida , Bordetella bronchiseptica, Haemophilus pasaruis and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Respiratory pathogens can be further distributed into primary pathogens that are capable of inducing severe lesions in respiratory tissues as a result of their own virulence (A. pleuropneumoniae , B. bronchiseptica and M. hyopneumoniae ), and secondary or opportunistic infectious pathogens, which typically need help from others co-infecting pathogens or co-factors, in order to induce substantial lesions in the respiratory system (S. suis , P. multocida and H. parasuis )..

Journal of Phytochemicals Health Benefits

Medicinal plants are used by almost 80% of the world’s population for their basic health care because of their low cost and ease in availability. Herbal drugs made from medicinal plants have been used from ancient times to treat various diseases and their antimicrobial properties make them a rich source of many potent drugs.

The use of herbal medicinal plants has always played a positive role in the control or prevention of diseases such as diabetes, heart disorders and various cancers. The genus Tagetes belongs to the Asteraceae family which presently comprises of 56 species, 27 biennials and 29 perennials. Tagetes species and chemo-types from its genus have been largely examined for biological active metabolites that can be used in industry and medicine. Compounds that have antimicrobial activity in the Tagetes minuta plant are said to be accumulated in the organs of the plant and their essential oils have not only antimicrobial effect but also insecticidal properties.

Extracts from Tagetes minuta leaf flowers and stem extracted using methanol have shown to contain secondary metabolites including terpenes which are thought to be responsible for antibacterial activities. The genus Aloe is common in Kenya; with about 60 taxa recognized. Aloe species have antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, antiviral and immunomodulatory properties. Aloe secundiflora other synonyms are; Aloe floramaculata, Aloe engleri and Aloe marsabitensis. Aloe secundiflora leaf components have been credited for antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral and antihelmintic medicinal properties. Herbalists from the Lake Victoria region have traditionally used Aloe secundiflora to treat ailments including chest problems, polio, malaria and stomach ache. Vernonieae is a tribe of about 1300 species of plant in the Asteraceae (compositae) family which mostly contains herbaceous plants. Vernonia laisopus decoctions from the stems and leaves have been traditionally been used by herbalist in East Africa to treat, malaria, worms and gastrointestinal problems. Its extracts have also been used in treating some of the sexually transmitted diseases in southern parts of Africa. Bulbine is a genus of plants in the family xanthorrhoeaceae and sub family asphodeloideae and its members are well known for their medicinal value. Bulbine plant has been used for medicinal purposes in the early stages of the eighteen century by Dutch and British settlers of South Africa in treating various ailments.

Journal Of Antioxidant Activity Impact Factor

The prefecture of Kefalonia and Ithaca includes those two islands and a few smaller ones, all of which are located in the Ionian Sea on the west area of Greece. The soil of the islands is calcium rich in some areas and in others it is composed mostly of clay. The climatic and cultural conditions influence the development of grape and flavor profile, producing aromatic traits. The discontinuous mountainous terrain and the variety of microclimates that are controlled mostly by the sea are responsible for the creation of the ideal conditions for viticulture. Indeed, the area is famous since ancient times for wine production.

Kefalonia has three wine growing areas, covering a total of 1,191 ha of vines on the island and it is famous for its white wines, especially “Robola”. There are however other local grape varieties that are used today which are indigenous and the wines produced are sold worldwide. Among those, two of them namely Robola and Mavrodafni are designated with an appellation of origin of high quality.

Furthermore, in recent years, there is an increasing demand for organic products. For this reason, some of the vineyards on the island have been transformed to biological ones and there is a tendency to change all wineries to produce biological products. To achieve this goal some wineries produce wine by spontaneous fermentation.

The Relationship between Persistent Post Concussive Symptoms and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in Children–A Call for an Integrative View

Children suffering from Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), often present significant diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. TBI may occur during a motor vehicle accident, a fall, a violent assault, sports injuries, etc. It results from a blunt impact or other mechanical force applied to the head, involving one or more of the following: loss of consciousness, loss of memory for events immediately before or after the accident, alternation in mental state at the time of the injury, or focal neurological deficits. The vast majority of TBIs in children are of mild severity, which account for 80-90 % of all brain

injuries.One of the most common acute outcomes of mild TBI (mTBI) is a set of physical, emotional and cognitive symptoms, known as Post Concussive Syndrome (PCS). Typically PCS includes physical or somatic symptoms, such as headache, dizziness, and visual disturbances; cognitive impairments, such as attention, memory, and executive dysfunction; and emotional or behavioral problems such as irritability, anxiety, depression, affective lability, apathy, and/ or impulsivity. In the DSM-5 PCS is now subsumed under the heading of “minor neurocognitive disorder”.

Infectious Disease Journal Impact Factor List

We recently have demonstrated pathologically that biofilms are present in the brains of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients. The biofilms were undoubtedly created by the dental and Lyme spirochetes which have previously been shown to be present there consequently, these biofilms would represent a chronic infection We also provided immunopathological evidence that the innate immune system reactant, Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR 2), was upregulated in that same tissue. We postulated that TLR 2, while trying to destroy the spirochetes, could not penetrate the biofilm and attacked the surrounding tissue instead. We also alluded to the recent work showing how the adaptive immune system became involved after traumatic brain injury and very rapidly created much more devastating damage than the innate immune system.

 

Our other observation, which combined pathology and immunopathology was demonstrating theco-localization of beta amyloid (Aβ) and biofilm. The significance of the finding represented by that photomicrograph was not alluded to. We present herein observations and marshal the evidence that gives substantiation to the significance of that finding.

Aβ has been shown, in a 3-dimensional pathology (side-by-side) presentation, to lay on top of the biofilms. This finding, plus the aforementioned co-localization, positions the Aβ in direct contiguity with the biofilms (which actually form the pathological plaques of AD).

An issue that remains is: how does the Aβ become positioned there, and what is its potential purpose?

We believe it may be related to the presence of TLR 2. This innate immune system molecule kills by activating the MyD88 pathway which leads to NFκB and ultimately to TNFα. It is the TNFα that is the “killing” agent for TLR 2.. It is capable of destroying planktonic gram positive organisms, yeasts, and spirochetes.

TNFα has been shown to be cleaved by TNFα converting enzyme (TACE) which has been shown to be dramatically upregulated in AD. TACE is localized in the neuronal membranes where it is in direct proximity to the spirochetal derived biofilms and where it acts to upregulate alpha secretase. Beta secretase, and gamma secretase are upregulated by NFκB. NFκB then links with BACE (beta amyloid converting enzyme) that cleaves the amyloid precursor protein (APP) that changes the precursor molecule to Aβ. The γ- secretase has been linked to the genetic form of the disease.

Aβ has been shown to be antimicrobial. It seems that is its purpose for which it is generated. However, and this is most important, it is not able to penetrate the biofilm either (just as TNFα cannot).

Thus, thebody in trying to rid itself of the spirochetal parasites in one case (TNFα)most assuredly contributes to the disease. In the other case, while also trying to act anti-microbially, the innate immune system creates a substance (Aβ) that further damages the tissue and the neuronal circuits.

As has been said previously, it is most important to treat these microbes before they get to the brain or before the do damage (make biofilms).

All that is necessary is an antibiotic that is bactericidal and crosses the blood brain barrier. If necessary, a biofilm dispersing agent that also crosses the blood-brain barrier, such as a furan, a pyrrole, a piperidine, or a thiophene or other could also be added to the regimen (All these pharmaceuticals cross the blood brain barrier). The spirochetes, biofilm, immune system, and Aβ are capable of marked neuronal damage which is non-reversible. This makes treatment and potential prevention both urgent and compelling.